Mass Media In Britain Media Essay

Mass Media In Britain Media Essay The overall aim of this paper is to explore current-day British media language, and how it has changed, or is changing, and how this affects peoples view of the world. Also, to look at the reverse, at how the new British media may be affecting language. Of course, in all this, language is inevitably interwoven with broader trends and issues. Three main topics provide the cornerstones of the present paper, and these make up the three chapters. Chapter I, Mass-media in Britain, contains subchapters which outline and discuss how British media has evolved and changed in recent years. Chapter II, New alternative British Media models, explores various ways in which British media is realized at the current time, focusing on the representation of particular topics such as Web media so popular nowadays . We will show how these can influence the perceptions of readers or the audience. Chapter III , Future Media in UK- BBC iPlayer, looks at the high-tech level employed by the British Media and analyses its success and downfalls. Each chapter of this paper therefore has a separate main theme. However, in another way, the chapters overlap, in that certain key points recur. Globalization versus fragmentation may be the most noticeable two-way alternative in British media. News reports leap across the globe in seconds, and this has resulted in some similarities in media styles across widely separated geographical regions. In other cases, the reverse has happened, the immensity of the world has led to a tightening of small-scale networks, resulting in some fragmentation, as people try to maintain local ties and their own identity.  [1]   This paper is an attempt to address some fundamental concerns underlying the British media studies. I first outline the academic and theoretical roots of this field. Then I discuss its major disciplinary dimensions and critical issues. The specific aim of this paper is to set out the approximate sequence of development of the present-day set of British mass-media. It is also to indicate major turning points and to tell briefly something of the circumstances of time and place in which different British media acquired their public definitions in the sense of their perceived utility for audiences and their role in society. These definitions have tended to form early in the history of any given medium and to have been subsequently adapted in the light of newer media and changed conditions. This is a continuing process. The paper concludes with some reflections on the two main dimensions of variation between British media: one relates to the degree of freedom and the other to the conditions of use. CHAPTER I. MASS-MEDIA IN BRITAIN I.1. British media-evolution and perspectives The domestic media market in the UK is becoming ever more competitive . In broadcasting, the stable relationship that existed for many years between the BBC, a public corporation funded by a licence fee, and the Independent Television sector, a network of private regional broadcasters funded by advertising revenue, has fragmented, as a consequence of the arrival of satellite and cable companies whose main revenues are derived from subscriptions. Particularly significant is the rise and rise of SKY satellite TV and its multi-channel packages, which is owned by Rupert Murdochs News Corporation. The terrestrial stations themselves have also recently entered the digital market place, with varying success. The BBCs non-subscription Free View service has so far proved moderately successful, delivering more dedicated programming aimed at niche audiences and subject areas. However, ITVs ventures into pay-view digital TV, launched as OnDigital in 1998, proved disastrous, being re-launched and then ending up as ITV digital in 2002 after incurring unsustainable losses.  [2]   The national newspaper market in the UK has always been a crowded one. There are currently nine daily and weekly up-market broadsheet titles and 10 tabloids that are distributed across the UK. This is by far the largest national newspaper press in Europe and has led some to question whether this is sustainable in a market the size of Britain. Long-term decline in readership figures (down 20% since 1990), rising production costs and falling advertising revenues have placed significant financial pressures across the sector, squeezing certain titles to the margins of viability.  [3]   These pressures are also evident at local and regional levels of the British newspaper market and have been exacerbated by the rise of free newspaper titles that are funded entirely by advertising revenue. This intensifying competition has led to a growing concentration in ownership patterns both within and across British media sectors, as smaller outlets are acquired by multi-media corporations whose economies of scale protect them to some degree from market pressures. Today, in the UK, the press is still characterised by a metropolitan focus almost all its national newspapers are published in London, and its diversity, there are 11 national dailies, and 12 Sunday newspapers. Of these, 11 are tabloids, which focus mainly on light news and entertainment, whereas the so-called quality press is more focused on politics, economics and foreign news. Regional and weekly newspapers, paid-for and free, concentrate almost entirely on local issues. Newspapers are free from political control and funded entirely by cover price and advertising. Working practices in newspapers and the broadcast media have been changed dramatically both by the opportunities provided by new technology and by the political and industrial climate created by the Thatcher government of the 1980s and unchanged in the 21st century. In the broadcast industry, de-regulation since the 1990s has both fragmented the audience and, conversely, concentrated ownership. There are about 15 regional commercial television licenses, though ownership is concentrated; hundreds of commercial radio stations, although the sector is characterised by large-groups; and there is also a new wave of community radio stations.  [4]   Television viewers can also access 24-hour news stations such as BBC 24, SKY News and CNN via cable and satellite and web sites complement many, if not most, of the news outlets. The distinctive character of the UK media, metropolitan, historically rooted in an early emancipation from political party control of the press, thoroughly commercial in structure and organisation, yet with a seminal public service broadcasting institution at its core, is unique. News time is time in relation to place: what matters is the fastest news from the most distant or most important place. In the evolving British media landscape, opportunity abounds. The roots of British media studies are traceable in the inquiries about the relationship between media and culture. The early attempts to this direction started during the 1920s following the rise of British mass media forms like radio networks, newspapers and magazines of mass circulation, and after mid 1930s with the advent of television media. The initial studies into British media were influenced by the Eurocentric obsessions on high cultureclaimed by many to be the best that has been said and thought.  [5]  The media of the time were assigned the role of representing that high culture ignoring the world outside Europe and colonies of European powers. The period was marked by widespread British hegemony in media production and circulation with news agencies like Reuters and BBC, which projected the image of media as powerful and influential, media as vehicles of nation-state or class propaganda, media as exemplars of modern technologically sophisticated professionalism. Development of academic media discourse, nevertheless, was remarkably slow during these formative years because it lacked a specific theoretical direction as a result of what Denis MacQuail (2002) calls the absence of a fixed disciplinary base.  [6]   Postmodernism promotes the worldview that the present is the age when identities are determined by whose information is disseminated fastest . It further recognizes the role of mass media in integrating people by reducing boundaries of space and time. It acknowledges the presence of multiple technologies as vehicles creating more spaces and more possibilities of switching across them. According to Carl Eric Rosengren, As new media for communication have been created, the old ones have become specialized, but none have been completely eliminated.This notion fully applies to British medias evolution. More than any other technologies for mass communication, contemporary media allow for a greater quantity of information transmission and retrieval, place more control over both content creation and selection in the hands of their users, and do so with less cost to the average consumer. The Internet serves as the best example and, through digital convergence, will form the backbone of most future mediated communication. The Internet was designed to be decentralized, meaning that control is distributed to all users who have relatively equal opportunity to contribute content. The increased bandwidth of the Internet further enhances users ability to become content producers and to produce material that is fairly sophisticated at low cost. In addition, many of the new technologies in UK are more portable and, therefore, more convenient to use compared with older mass media. These characteristics of the new media are breaking the foundations of our conception of mass communication. Today, media institutions are changing such that mass production is less mass. The explosion of available channels afforded by the new technologies contributes to the demassification of the media by diffusing the audience for any particular media product. This has resulted in channel specialization, and the old model of broadcasting to the masses has given way to market segmentation and targeting to niche audiences.  [7]   Although existing British media institutions are well positioned to adapt to these changing conditions, the fact that the new British media shrink the size of the audience for any particular channel is likely to create opportunities for others. That is, if smaller audiences mean reduced costs of production and distribution, then more content producers will be able to enter the media market. In the near future, the issue may be less about what media companies are doing to people and more about what people are doing with the media.  [8]   This is one reason why we find new media holding great potential as a resource for British press freedom and freedom of expression. They serve as a platform for dialogue across borders and allow for innovative approaches to the distribution and acquisition of knowledge. These qualities are vital to press freedom. But they may be undercut by attempts to regulate and censor both access and content. As follows we will provide in short lines some advantages and less fortunate characteristics of the choice for one media or another, in order to underline the interconnectedness among all of the media in shaping the large picture of the British media diversity. The book medium Technology of movable type Bound pages, codex form Multiple copies Commodity form Multiple (secular) content Individual in use Claim to freedom of publication Individual authorship The newspaper medium Regular and frequent appearance Commodity form Reference to current events Public sphere functions Urban, secular audience Relative freedom The film medium Audiovisual technology From public performance to private experience Extensive (universal) appeal Predominantly narrative fiction More international than national in character Subjection to social control From mass to multiple markets Television Very large output, range and reach Audiovisual content Complex technology and organization Public character and extensive regulation National and international character Very diverse content forms Radio Flexible and economical production Flexible in use Multiple contents Relative freedom Individualized use Participant potential Recorded music (phonogram) media Multiple technologies of recording and dissemination Low degree of regulation High degree of internationalization Younger audience Subversive potential Organizational fragmentation Diversity of reception possibilities The Internet as a medium Computer-based technologies Hybrid, non-dedicated, flexible character Interactive potential Private and public functions Low degree of regulation Interconnectedness Ubiquity and delocatedness Accessible to individuals as communicators  [9]   I.2. British newspapers , broadcast media and new age media British Broadcast television   is going through a period of change with increasing digitilisation and interactive media cooperation. The biggest broadcast TV stations remain the BBC and SkyTV but these are supplemented by 250 cable and satellite TV stations and 1,100 independent television production companies.  [10]   This is a rapidly growing sector with cable and satellite and independent companies doubling in the period 2000-2008. This is a broad profession where 34% are freelance and people are judged by the quality of their work rather than their formal qualifications. Despite this, 70% have at least an undergraduate degree. British Radio the airwaves are dominated by the BBC , which has 12 distinct radio channels. Interactive media comprises collection of areas including web and internet, offline multimedia, electronic games and interactive TV. Game design the UK has one of the largest gaming industries. 48 of the worlds most profitable studios are based in the UK. The industry has been growing to7.5% from 2009-2012. Some of the main Bristish Media organisations: the British Media Industry Group ,Cable Communications Association , ITV Network Centre, National Association of Press Agencies . Some of the major industry bodies: Commonwealth Press Union, Institute of Local Television, Radio Joint Audience Research. The major occupational/professional groups: Association of British Editors, British Society of Magazine Editors. The main trade unions: Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union. The UK Television The five national networks (excluding satellite) Cable and digital Five national networks in the UK. The main British TV channels are: BBC 1 since 1936, general interest programmes. BBC 2 minority and specialist interests. ITV broadcasting is approximately 33% informative and 66% light entertainment. Channel 4 since 1982, 15% educational programmes, encourages innovation and experiment. Television viewing in Britain- overview The most popular leisure pasttime Average viewing time is over 25 hours a week TV productions continue to win international awards Half of the programmes are bought abroad Childrens TV has been very active( Blue Peter on BBC 1) Youth TV has been started recently Presentation of the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) Six national stations. Broadcasts: BBC 1, 2, 4, BBC News 24, BBC Choice, BBC Parliament. Radio Channels. No advertising. Worldwide television services (BBC World, BBC Prime) The division of programmes Light entertainment (variety shows, soap operas, situation comedies, game shows) News/current affairs Documentaries  [11]   Childrens TV Music Sport Films/TV movies Drama/plays British favourite TV shows Are you being served? Bless me father Fawlty Towers Mulberry Yes, Prime Minister Blackadder Chef Holmes The brief history of British radio  [12]   1922: BBC started daily broadcasting on 2LO on 14 Nov. The first voice was Arthur Burrows, reading the news. 1922: 15 Nov: 5IT and 2ZY became first BBC stations outside London. 1967: On 30th September, BBC radio reorganisation launched Radios 1,2,3 and 4. 1967: Third Programme andNational Programme replaced 2LO. The Regional Programme, an alternative service, started later this year. 1973: Birth of independent (commercial) radio, with LBC and Capital Radio in London. 1988: First commercial station split frequencies. 1990: IBA split into ITC 1991: Radio 1 goes 24 hours on 1 May. 1992: Launch of Classic FM, Britains first national commercial radio station. 1993: Launch of Virgin 1215. 1995: Talk Radio began broadcasting on 14 Feb. 1996: New rules on cross-media ownership heralds further change in the radio industry. The most popular British radio stations are  [13]  : Clare FM Anna Livia Live 95 Welsh Radio International Imperial College radio Capital FM BBC Radio 2

Ethics and Utilitarianism Essay

What is Utilitarianism? Utilitarianism is an ethical framework for effective moral action. It’s a philosophical concept that holds an action to be held right if it tends to promote happiness for the greatest number of people. The essence of utilitarianism is in its concept of pleasure and pain. It defines the morally right actions as those actions that maximize pleasure or happiness and minimize pain or evil. Utilitarianism is all about making the right choices that will consequently promote the greatest amount of happiness. It can be traced all the way back to the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus, but the name most frequently associated with utilitarianism is that of Jeremy Bentham. According to utilitarianism, we should evaluate an action by looking at is consequences, weighing the good effects against the bad effects on all the people affected by it. If the good outweighs the bad, it tends to be a good action; if the bad outweigh the good, it tends to be a bad action. (DeGeorge 45) Ethical principles and theories are the foundations of ethical analysis because bring significant characteristics to the decision-making process. Every single theory shows different points such as predicting the outcome and following one’s duties to others in order to reach an ethical decision. But an ethical theory can only to be useful if the theory is directed towards a common set of goals. Ethical principles are the common goals that each theory tries to achieve in order to be successful. These goals include beneficence, least harm, respect for autonomy and justice. Using utilitarianism in ethical business practice would consider the good and bad consequence for everyone the action would affect, treat everybody as having equal rights, with no bias towards self, and would use it as an objective, quantitative way to make a moral decision. Utilitarianism should be employed in all business decision-making process to maximize effects and minimize negative outcomes. Businesses seek to make a profit. The cost-benefit analysis is a form of utility calculation. Most business often use cost-benefit as a decision making tool. Companies attempt to find out how much something is going to cost them before taking any actions that should result in consequences favorable to everyone involved. Just simply put, the company could make a profit while the consumer benefit from the product. To understand the definitions and concepts of the theory, in relation to business ethics, I will use the Ford Pinto Case as an example. The Ford Pinto was sold with dangerous design faults in the fuel tank in which management knew the problem existed. (bizcovering) In a roll over, the fuel valve had a tendency to leak fuel. That did not stop design and production, they rushed to assemble the vehicle and costs were kept low in order to sell the auto for $2,000. It was successful, until one year four people died and one little boy horribly burned and disfigured. Then there were many other incidents that resulted in Ford being sued and had to pay millions in compensation. The cost-benefit analysis demonstrated an abuse of utilitarian principles to suit their needs, because the engineers were aware of the flaws, yet the company continued to sell the car without safety modifications. Utilitarianism, far from being a self-serving approach to moral issues, demands careful, objective, and impartial evaluation of consequences. This philosophy is based on the belief that the moral and ethical value of one’s action should be judged by the consequence of such action. But utilitarianism states that the morality of an action is best judged by the utility or usefulness of such an action. During the 1980’s, Oliver North had to explain why he lied to congressional committees about his role in the Iran-Contra affair, the sale of U. S. arms to Iran for the release of hostages that were held by Iran, he replied, â€Å"Lying does not come easily to me. But we all had to weigh in the balance the difference between lies and lives. North’s conduct was an example of utilitarianism, his method of justifying his acts of deception is a form of moral reasoning. So long as a course of action produces maximum benefits for everyone, utilitarianism does not care whether the benefits are produced by lies, manipulation, or coercion. Utilitarianism was once a radical philosophy. It attempted to set forth a moral system apart from divine revelation and biblical morality. Utilitarianism focused on results rather than rules. But now has been embraced by so many simply because it seems to make a good deal of sense and seems relatively simple to apply. It provided for a way for people to live moral lives apart from the Bible and its rules. Logic rather than obedience to biblical principles guides the ethical decision-making of utilitarianism. While Jeremy Bentham developed his ethical system around the idea of pleasure and built it on ancient hedonism which pursued physical pleasure and avoided physical pain; John Stuart Mill modified this philosophy and developed it apart from Bentham’s hedonistic foundation. Mill used the same utilitarian calculus but instead focused on maximizing the general happiness by calculating the greatest good for the greatest number. Whereas Bentham established act utilitarianism, Mill established rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarian holds that each individual action, in all its concreteness and in all its details, is what should be to the utilitarian test. (DeGeorge 47) Rule utilitarian holds that utility applies appropriately t classes of actions rant than to given individual actions. (DeGeorge 48) According to Mill, one determines what is right by comparing the consequences of all relevant factors of diffeerent rules for a specific circumstance. In conclusion, utilitarianism is all about making the right choices that will consequently promote the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Work Cited DeGeorge, Richard T. Business Ethics. 7th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 2010 â€Å"Applying Utilitarianism to Business Ethics: The Ford Pinto Case. † Annie Lundy February 6, 2009 â€Å"Utilitarianism. † utilitarianism. com. Henry R. West. n. d. â€Å"Calculating Consequences: The Utilitarian Approach to Ethics. † Claire Andre and Manuel Velasquez. n. d.

Bsa 375 Week 2 Service Request Sr-Rm-004, Part 1 - 1205 Words

Service Request SR-rm-022, Part 1 Your name here University of Phoenix Online BSA 375 Insrtuctor Date Service Request SR-rm-004, Part 1 Riordan Manufacturing is an international plastics manufacturer that currently employs 550 people with projected annual earnings totaling approximately $46 million. The company is completely owned by Riordan Industries which is a Fortune 1000 enterprise with revenues of up to $1 billion. The company’s merchandises consists of plastic beverage containers that are produced at its plant in Albany, Georgia; custom plastic parts are manufactured at its plant in Pontiac, Michigan; and plastic fan parts are created at its facilities in Hangzhou, China (Riordan Manufacturing, 2013).†¦show more content†¦Through these meetings, I will be allowed to ask and answer questions as well as invite comments and acknowledge concerns and ideas from every angle. By creating this open dialog, which will last through the duration of the project, I will be able to better understand what the company needs to improve the quality of its employee’s jobs. The design method that would be used for Riordan Manufacturing would involve the use of Joint Application Development (JAD). Participants in this methodology would include users, managers, sponsors, programmers, and systems analysts. By involving everyone in the program, we can obtain the most vital information on what is needed to improve the current process for Riordan. Business Requirements for an HR System Riordan Manufacturing is a large company with facilities in several locations around the world. Riordan Manufacturing is an international plastics manufacturer that currently employs 550 people and operates at around $46 million in sales(Riordan Manufacturing, 2013). As a result of its size, Riordan must have a system that is able to keep track of important information such as employee names and other confidential data. This information should be able to be accessed from other locations as well as the home office. There are other functions that a new and improved HR system co uld benefit such as inventory tracking or the shipping or reception of products. TheseShow MoreRelatedBSA 375 Complete Course1474 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Link name    BSA 375Week 1 Discussion Question 1   Ã‚  Ã‚   Why do heuristics and biases play a major role in the success or failure of an IT project? What specific kinds are the most influential factors, in general and for your specific organization?    How does organization culture play a role in the successful reliance on the Joint Application Development (JAD) process to identify and gather business requirements? Would JAD work in your company? Explain why or why not.    BSA 375Week 1 Discussion Question

Critically Discuss the Importance of Scenario Planning to Develop Risk Management and Crisis Management Plans - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2751 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Critically discuss the importance of scenario planning to develop Risk Management and Crisis Management plans Introduction Scenario planning plays an important role in developing risk management and crisis management plans. A good scenario planning always helps organizations to see possible futures and deal with crisis and risk successfully when emergencies happen. Consequently, most companies would like to spend amount of time and efforts in a formal, value scenario planning, so that they could get a clear futures and take appropriate decisions. This essay aims at the discussion on relationship between scenario planning and risk and crisis management plans, especially in how scenario planning improves or limits the developing of risk and crisis management plans. The whole assay involves three main concerns. At the first, briefly clarify the significant of the scenario planning, including the definition and characteristics. And then, introduce the risk and crisis management and the plans used to deal with them. Last but not the least, analyses the function of scenario planning for risk and crisis manag ement plans. There are also some company examples to support the argument. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Critically Discuss the Importance of Scenario Planning to Develop Risk Management and Crisis Management Plans" essay for you Create order Scenario planning In recent years, scenario planning is increasingly popular with organizations who consider it as a basis method in the strategic management process. A recent survey in UK showed that over 30 percent of organizations use scenario planning in their strategic process (Hodgkinson, et al., 2006), and earlier reports have shown the use of scenario planning have almost extended to mainland Europe (Malaska, 1985) and the USA (Linneman and Klein, 1983). Scenario planning, also called scenario analysis or scenario thinking, is a way to predict possible futures that organizations have applied to a great range of risk and crisis. It is not only a clear picture of tomorrow, but also the way of thinking and an ongoing strategic supplement for futures. In this way, managers could discuss objectively in full, and make strategy more flexible. It requires decision makers to be more sensitive on the signals of revolution. Just like an excellent chess player, he always could think out the next few ste ps and form a chain of reactions in his brain. If managers could imagine scenario occurs, they will be able to resolve it with more calm and careful. The characteristics of scenario planning are mainly system thinking, improvement of mental models and the ambition, vision and imagination exciting (Chermack, et al., 2001). As a management tool, scenario planning is different from the strategic planning which basis on the clear goal and faith. People could see the trend of development and also the system structure that would influence this trend through the method. In the meantime, it is not only the description of future scenario, but also some changes on mental models of organizations (Godet and Fabrice, 1996). If the scenario planning cannot impact mental models for decision makers, or lead to a revolution, it will hardly create the real value. Although there are still too many unknowns in future, it is still possible to simulate the decision-making on a series of credible, potenti al future scenarios and validate repeatedly, that is the significant of the scenario planning. In this case when these future scenarios really happen, managers could use the decisions which have been validated many times to avoid panic brought by unexpected accidents and increase the possibility of exploiting opportunities. Crisis and Risk management plans Crisis and risk management as situation-based management system can be defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“systematic process of identifying, analyzing and responding to project riskà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  (Irimia-DiÃÆ' ©guez, et al., 2014, p2). The project risk could happen in the process of development cycle or be caused by the changes in the external environment when implement the projects. Dey (2012) indicates that it contains six steps: planning, risk identification, qualitative risk analysis, quantitative risk analysis, risk response planning, risk monitoring and control. The aim of crisis and risk management is to be well prepared for emergency, and show a correct, timely approach to respond. As the result of that, it is much easier to deal with the crisis and risk and get them terminated without any losses. Efficient crisis and risk management could help organizations to make decisions correctly and ensure the safety and integrity of asset (Irimia-DiÃÆ' ©guez, et al., 2014). Moreover, the efficient crisis and risk management needs a perfect plan as guidance, so that the crisis and risk management could be implemented smoothly, that is the crisis and risk management plans. The plans focus on the strategy for identifying, analyzing and slowing risk and also the responsibility for crisis management (Dey, 2012). Besides that, it will provide a completed guideline that refers to how to carry out the crisis and risk management in process of the project. The original intent of the crisis and risk management is to avoid the risk and minimize loss, however, with the help of the risk management plans, organizations could expect attain greater rewards (Dey, 2012). In a word, it is essential to draw up a crisis and risk management plans during the whole process of a project. Good plans forCrisis and Risk management As mentioned before, good plans will improve the process of crisis and risk management greatly. The purpose of the risk management plan is to set up the framework that is used for identifying risks and developing strategies, so those risks could be mitigated or even avoided. Having a good plan could help managers deal with emergencies when they occur and, hopefully, prevent them before they occur (Horton, 2002). From another perspective, risks could be positive that may result in some good things happening, usually called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"opportunitiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. And sometimes a good plan would be the kind of catalyst which makes the transition from risks to opportunities. In the meanwhile a good plan should also list the detail information related to the potential crisis and risk and clarify how to respond to them. The topics addressed in a risk management plan usually include methodology, roles and responsibilities, budget and schedule (Horton, 2002). In particularly, some volatility categories must be considered, just like market, financial, technology, employee and so on. As a top management, they should learn the core of crisis and risk management before starting a plan, such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"What could happen?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"How likely is it to happenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"how can you reduce the probabilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. So it is more like a list of adverse situations with their answers rather than a plan. There are other things managers should pay more attention, which the risk management plans need to be done at the first stage in project management and adjusted or updated at any time. As well known, Shell had the most to gain due to the crisis and risk management plans. In the early 1970s, the professional planners in Shell started to research and discuss the risk management and then they formed their own risk management plan. This plan mainly focused on the issue like à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"what will we be l ike in the next 20-30 years?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"how to make people discuss the things that cannot be imagined?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ In 1972, under the leadership of Pierre.Wacker, the team drew up a plan to cope with the energy crisis that could happen in some days. They were afraid of that one day oil companies in western countries would lose controls on oil supplements. And they should plan what will happen and how to struggle with it. Sure enough, the 1970s oil shocks transformed the world economy. When OPEC announced the policy of oil embargo, most oil companies suffered huge losses, but Shell became the only one that could resist this crisis because of its well prepared. Since then, Shell has jumped to the second of the biggest oil companies. In 1986, before the price of oil collapse, Shell saw the crisis again and planned to give up the acquisition on other small oil companies, stop expanding their production. After the price of oil decline, Shell spent the leas t money in buying a large number of oil fields. A series of risk management plans kept Shell maintaining the price advantage in the next 20 years. However, Motorola is not so lucky. As a leader of phone makers, it has been history. It is the lack of plans to cope with challenges in the market that leads to the failure. Motorola got over-confident without any sense of crisis or risk management plans. When other competitors rushed into the market with their high-tech productions, Motorola was not prepared for this transformation, and still insisted on their own way. Actually, it would be an opportunity if foreseen the 3G mobile phone, but Motorola was not be aware of that. Finally they cannot avoid this crisis or turned this threat into advantage and started to falter. Scenario planning and Crisis and Risk management plans Scenario planning and crisis and risk management plans have been discussed separately, so the relationship between them would be the next topic. Scenario planning as a way of predicting the future is a basis for developing crisis and risk management plans. To finish a risk management plan, managers must do scenario planning to foresee the possible risks. Each possible future scenario could be listed, including both risk and opportunity, analyses their probabilities and then discuss on how to deal with them (Irimia-DiÃÆ' ©guez, et al., 2014). Once it is done, the initial risk management plan has been developed. In other words, the scenario planning is more like a tool of risk management plan. There is another role for the scenario planning that is a link between business strategy and risk management plan (Coppendale, 1995). Combined with the existing strategy and intrinsic properties, it is easier to target the real crisis and risk that may happen in future, and develop a practic al crisis and risk management plan. So the scenario planning is the binder for business strategy and risk management plan. Most organizations would pay more attentions on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"How to develop crisis and risk management plansà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Of course, under the help of scenario planning, it will do more with less. There are mainly four steps to develop the crisis and risk management plans. Firstly, indentify risks from the discussion of scenario planning regarding future events. Meanwhile, it is necessary to indicate the potential events might hurt or enhance a particular project in a risk management plan. Secondly, analyses risks using repeated questions and responses just like brainstorming that is the same way as scenario planning do (Eberlein, et al., 2002). So it is much easier to analyses accurately if refer to the conclusion from scenario planning. Please note that it would be better if rank the risks. A list marked with high or low priority for potential risks will help teams create a professional risk management plan (Irimia-DiÃÆ' ©guez, et al., 2014). And then make strategies for these risks that have been listed, including mitigation measures and emergency measures. The mitigation measure is to reduce the possibility of risk, while the emergency measure aims at minimizing losses when risk occurs. The scenario planning could be used for evaluating the mitigation or emergency measures and rearranging the risks. At the end, a project manager need to monitor risks in the process of projects, and the specific steps used for monitoring project risks should be recorded in a risk management plan, such as assignments to risk managers and responsibility for status updates (Coppendale, 1995). Whether scenario planning or risk management plans, the purpose of them is to help organizations to take their appropriate decisions. In this way, managers could achieve the goals that minimize potential negative risks, at the same time, maximize potenti al positive risks. However, everything always works two sides: scenario planning also has limitations of itself. Scenarios are just some ideas, and ideas are difficult to communicate with other people (Ringland and Schwartz, 1998). Without effective communication, it is hard to implement in practice. Implementation is the soul of each plan. If the scenario planning is completely out of an implementation, it is just a planning or even a sweet dream. In addition, the use of analytical tools has limitations, showing up in data collected and the subjective nature. Both internal and external environment are changing fast, so the limitations of current knowledge and technology are hampers for forecasting the marketing. Moreover, to research market and collect data will inevitable cost much time and manpower that cannot be afforded by some small companies. There is another concern that if anything goes wrong or any potential risks unforeseen, it would shock the company heavily. As the o rganizations thought they had been well prepared for facing each crisis and risk, the over-confident makes them careless when the market is changing out of control. It is difficult to be aware of non-sensible subconscious for the organizations. A better choice is to link scenario to strategic planning (Ringland and Schwartz, 1998) and risk management planning. By standing on the point of whole company strategy, put scenario planning into practice together with strategic planning. Although the scenario planning is an idea discussed by the project teams, it is not visionary or a game. So the scenario planning is just considered as a tool for both strategic planning and risk management plan that indicate the clear assignment and responsibility. With a clear assignment and responsibility, it is much easier to implement in practice for managers and communicate with his team members (Ringland and Schwartz, 1998). Furthermore, as a successful executive officer, it is very essential to k eep thinking refresh. Either scenario planning or risk management plans is not invariable. They need to be adjusted and updated as the developing of market, especially in a dynamic information technology sector. For those small companies, they could hire some professional teams to accomplish the scenario planning or risk management plans. The low-cost is beneficial for the development of those fledgling. The last point is that keep a clear head and never slip at any time. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Be vigilant in peace timeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is always a proverb for most organizations. Conclusions Scenario planning is popular with more and more companies. Most of them would like to hold a regular discussion conference to imagine scenarios that may happen in future. The teams will list each risk or opportunity and think out different strategies to copy. So the scenario planning is a basis for crisis and risk management and help organizations to be equipped before a war. There should also be a risk management plan, so that crisis and risk management could go well. Refers to the scenarios, the risk management plans could identify and analyses crisis better. Please note that not all risks need to be eliminated. With the help of a good plan, the risks could also be transformed into opportunities. In addition, the assignments and responsibilities must be clarified clearly in this plan, besides crisis and risks may face. 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