Management Functions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Management Functions - Assignment Example It has refocused on offering low prices for their products, improved the mix of merchandise sold, and provided friendlier and quick customer service. The secret to this was the organization culture introduced by the company that encourages teamwork. Teams in the company get together to discuss performance and to help each other with the goals of improving performance (Barnaro, 2005). Staffing Staffing deals with managing the structure of the organization that ensures putting the right man on the right job. â€Å"Staffing involves managing the structures of the organization through doing proper selection, appraisals and personnel development to fill roles designed in the organization’s structure.† (George & Jerry, 1999, p.74). staffing includes manpower planning, recruitment and selection, training and development,compensation,performance appraisal and promotions and transfers.walmart ensures that it recruits employees who have the right qualifications for the positions that they hold.walmart also encourages diversity at the workplace by employing staff from different cultural backgrounds and minority groups. The company has Latinos, African-Americans, Asians and people with disability.walmart have over 1000 employees in their retail outlets in the U.S market. Controlling Controlling is the measurement of goals that have been accomplished against the set standards and correction of deviations that have occurred if any, to ensure organizational goals are achieved. Controlling is done to ensure that everything confirms to standards and having an effective system of control that can help in predicting deviations before they occur. controlling involves steps which include establishment of standard performance, measurement of actual performance,... This essay discusses the field of management, that is a process that involves several steps which starts with scanning the environment to analyze external threats facing the organization. This could be economic conditions, customers or competitors. Planning considers available and prospective physical and human resources in the organization in order to get effective contribution, coordination and perfect adjustment. in ensuring that they achieve their goal of developing cost structures that would enable the organization offer low prices,wal-mart strategies on replenishing their inventory using cross docking logistics technique. With this technique products are got from suppliers to wal-mart warehouses, they are then shipped to store in the shortest time period possible. The researcher mentions that Troy argues that Wal-Mart has concentrated on developing and advancing a highly structured supply chain management to enhance their competitive advantage in the market. These functions of planning,staffing,controlling,organizing and directing helps in achieving group goals, ensures optimum utilization of resources and reduces costs through minimum input by proper planning and using minimum input and getting maximum output. In conclusion, it could be stated that they help in establishing a sound organization, establishing equilibrium and they are essentials’ for prosperity of society, in that efficient management leads to better economic production which increases the welfare of the people.

Take-Home Exam Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Take-Home Exam - Term Paper Example Scenes in movies or films are the activities that take place at a single location through a given amount time (Tomaric, 2012). Scenes are small films within a film, which make up the whole, when they are merged, through editing, to come up with one complete film. Scenes have some distinct qualities that characterize them to the extent that they are given unique names. This is because these characteristics can be reproduced, on other films, to bring about the same effect that they were designed to elicit. Establishing a shot in filmmaking is the process of making a long footage whose objective is to provide an overview of the scene that follows this shot. A wide shot in a film is also referred to as a long shot, and it shows the entire feature of interest in the frame. The shot includes an entire object that is captured including the surrounding environment that relates to the feature. A medium shot in filming is a shot that is taken when the camera is positioned at a medium distance away from the feature of interest (Tomaric, 2012). The distance that defines a medium shot is not clearly established because it creates confusion between a close up shot and a medium shot. A medium close up shot can be defined as a picture frame that includes, for example, the photo of a person from the below the waist and above the knees. A close up shot is a photo that includes the image of a person from the chest up or even the face only. An extreme close up shot is tightly taken A photo that only shows a specific detail about a feature. This can be a close up of the ears or the eyes. An over the shoulder shot is a shot of a feature taken from the perspective or camera angle of an over the shoulder view of another person or object. A 2-shot is a shot taken to include two features in one single shot. A point of view shot is more of a short scene describing the subject feature’s view at an object which taken by placing the camera angle between the subjects view and his/her reaction to the object (Tomaric, 2012). Question #2 A film budget is the money used to cater for expenses that are incurred in the filming making process. A film budget includes an above the line budgetary allocation that covers the key players, in the production of a movie for example, producers, directors, actors and writers. All other fund allocations are referred to as below the line. The film I would like to make addresses the prevailing social problems in society. The film would be produced in a way that it would be appealing and intriguing to the intended audience. I would seek to address the issue of drug abuse in society especially by the young generation. In doing this, I would seek the services of a script writer whose is familiar and conversant with the theme of this film. Ideas for this film can be got from persons who have had prior experience with drug abuse involving the youth. Film making has three basic steps that are involved in the process. These are the pre-prod uction stage, the production stage and the post production stage (Cleve, 2012). The pre-production stage involves the careful planning and designing of the film. A production company is created along with a production office. Pre-visualization of the film is done, and a storyboard of the film is established with guidance of concept artists and illustrators. A production budget is also drawn up during the pre-production which helps determine and plan for film expenditures. Films with

Explore the ways in which Shakespeare presents male characters Essay Example for Free

Explore the ways in which Shakespeare presents male characters Essay The female characters in Hamlet have several vital roles within the play that serve to add depth and interest to the overall plot. Shakespeare employs the women to emphasize key themes such as betrayal, that might not otherwise be drawn out, and also enable the audience to gain a deeper understanding of the main male characters through the way in which they view and treat women. It is important to closely examine the male-female interaction and relationships in order to understand how Shakespeare uses the women as a dramatic device. The main male characters of Hamlet, Claudius, Polonius and Laertes are repeatedly shown to possess negative attitudes towards women. These attitudes result in unjust, oppressive and abusive relationships with the female characters of Gertrude and Ophelia. The primary male character, Hamlet, bears no exception to this general negativity directed at women. Shakespeare presents Hamlet as a man with a progressive hatred of womankind, having a detrimental influence upon his relationships with the female characters. Shakespeare implies the reason for Hamlets increased negativity to be his mothers remarriage to his uncle, Claudius. The extent this has affected Hamlet is implied through repeated mention of it, such as in his second soliloquy when he speaks of Claudius two crimes as making his mother a whore and the murder of [his] father. Here, Shakespeare uses the order in which Hamlet lists Claudius crimes to convey which event Hamlet views most severely. Damage caused by the remarriage is again seen through Hamlets resulting negativity towards women. One such attitude is the belief that women are overtly sexual. Upon Hamlets Chance meeting with Ophelia, he comments unfavourably on her tendency as a woman to jig, amble and lisp. Shakespeares chosen combination of verbs implies that Hamlet thinks women to have an inherently flirtatious nature. Hamlet also speaks to Ophelia of womens wantonness becoming their ignorance, implying that sexual desires become their downfall. It seems that this view of women as sexual tempters leads Hamlet to believe that they should be cut off from men, so as not to cause men detriment. Shakespeare conveys this through Hamlets instruction to Ophelia to get thee to a nunnery; repeating this line to demonstrate his conviction that women should remain separate so their overtly sexual nature cannot negatively influence men. Shakespeare emphasizes this through the forceful language Hamlet uses to instruct Ophelia in this action, for example go, and quickly too and that she must go now. Through Hamlets repetition of the imperative verb go, Shakespeare conveys his commanding tone, leaving the audience with no doubt of his vehemence. Shakespeare again shows Hamlets problem with womens sexuality through his repulsion at his mothers relationship with Claudius. In Hamlets first soliloquy he speaks of the speed of the marriage, saying how Gertrude did post with such dexterity to incestuous sheets. Here, Shakespeares repetition of s sounds acts as a sibilant to emphasise that Hamlet is hissing the words, conveying disgust at his mothers remarriage and sexual relationship. In negatively viewing the sexuality of both women in his life, Shakespeare hints that Hamlet not only has a problem with them individually, but that his grudge also lies with womankind. This is epitomized through his suggestion to Ophelia at the Chance Meeting that there should be no more marriage, thus effectively terminating sexual relationships. Hamlets disapproval of womens sexuality is linked with his belief that they have a ruinous influence upon men. Shakespeare shows this attitude through the way that in the Chance Meeting with Ophelia, Hamlet suggests that women in general corrupt men, saying wise men know well enough what monsters you make of them. Shakespeare again shows Hamlet blaming women for mens faults including his own insanity, saying their flirtatious games hath made [him] mad. Thus, Hamlet is shown to hold women as scapegoats, accountable for mens faults. Hamlets negative attitudes of women combine to produce unequal and oppressive relationships with both women in his life. Shakespeare demonstrates the imbalance in Hamlets relationship with Ophelia through the way the two characters treat one another so differently. Whilst Hamlet carries out a character assassination of her in the Chance Meeting saying that she is corrupt and a sinner, Ophelia glorifies him. Ophelia implies that Hamlet is awed saying he is observed and the glass of fashion. Also, Ophelia believes him to be of good character, saying he has a noble mind. This suggests Ophelias adoration of Hamlet, prior to his madness, and hints at her love for him. Through this contrast between Ophelias treatment of Hamlet with his of her, Shakespeare indicates who dominates their imbalanced relationship. The result is confusion and pain for the subservient Ophelia, shown through her repeated questions such as what means this my lord? and her declaration of grief at Hamlets rejection, proclaiming O woe is me.

The Sarbanes Oxley Act Dealt With Four Major Issues Accounting Essay

The Sarbanes Oxley Act Dealt With Four Major Issues Accounting Essay What responsibilities did David Duncan owe to Arthur Andersen? To Enrons management? To Enrons stockholders? To the accounting profession? David Duncan owed Arthur Anderson the responsibility to do what a reasonable employee would do in any situation to include a duty to work with reasonable care and skill. Not to disrupt business, not to compete in business against Arthur Anderson while still working for them as an employee or conduct acts of corporate espionage, nor to disclose Arthur Anderson?s confidential information. Duncan had the duty and responsibility to be honest, and carry out and follow the orders of Arthur Anderson, so long as they were legal, and if not to disclose the wrongdoing, even if this will incriminate him. As a professional accountant, David Duncan had an obligation to record, provide, and attest to information regarding the economic affairs of Enron. Because investors and creditors place great reliance on financial statements in making their investment and credit decisions, it is imperative that the financial reporting process be truthful and dependable. Thus, the responsibility Duncan owed to Enron?s management and Enron?s Stockholders was to exercise the general duty of performance, skill and care of the ordinarily prudent accountant in the same circumstances and observe a standard of ethical or social responsibility. This duty is not only morally right, but it is required by law, and arises from the law of negligence, contract, and fiduciaries; required by those in professional services, such as accountants. David Duncan owed a responsibility to the accounting profession to uphold and adhere to the ethical code of the profession. These codes of ethics are established throughout the professional associations of accountants such as The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, The Institute of Management Accountants and the Institute of Internal Auditors. These codes provide guidelines for responsible behavior by accounting professionals, and emphasize integrity, objectivity, confidentiality, and competency. Duncan failed in his responsibilities to Arthur Anderson, Enron?s management and stockholders, and the accounting profession. He did not maintain his integrity, objectivity, confidentiality, and competency. He did not properly follow Generally Accepted Accounting Principles and disclose Enron?s true financial status, resulting in an adverse impact to Arthur Anderson employees and Enron?s stockholders and employees. When he suspected Enron of unethical behavior, he failed to inform management at Enron or Arthur Anderson, his silence was a passive permissiveness to their behavior. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants code of ethics suggests that the best interest of the client is served when accountants fulfill their responsibility to the public, once again Duncan failed. What are the ethical responsibilities of a corporate attorney, such as Nancy Temple, who works for an aggressive client wishing to push the envelope of legality? The professional duties of an attorney, who represents or advises auditors, as was the case with Nancy Temple and Arthur Anderson, must incorporate an awareness of the auditors professional responsibilities. Nancy Temple ultimately owes her duty to Arthur Andersen as in-house counsel and was ethically bound to pursue the interests of her client and in doing so serves the public interest best by representing Arthur Andersen?s interests. As an attorney admitted to the Illinois bar, Nancy Temple was subject to the Illinois Rules of Professional Conduct. These rules impose professional obligations of competence, diligence, communication, and confidentiality. Under both the Illinois Rules and the Model Rules, if a lawyer representing an organization knows that an officer, employee, or other person associated with the organization is violating the law in a manner that is likely to result in substantial injury to the organization, the lawyer shall respond by taking reasonably necessary measures that are in the best interest of the organization. Such measures may ultimately result in the lawyers resignation, but shall be designed to minimize the risk of revealing confidential information. Nancy Temple, although not be required to disclose Arthur Andersen?s confidential information, she could have elected to discontinue representation of Arthur Anderson?s due to their involvement in fraud and illegal acts. Under what conditions should an employee such as Sherron Watkins blow the whistle to outside authorities? To whom did she owe loyalty? Although touted as the Enron whistle-blower Sherron Watkins never really blew a whistle. Whistle-blowing is the release of information by a member or past member of an organization who has evidence of illegal or immoral conduct in the organization, or conduct in the organization that is not in the public interest. Whistle-blowing reveals information that would not be ordinarily revealed in everyday context. In almost every case whistle-blowing involves an actual or at least a declared intention to prevent something bad that would otherwise occur (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2008; Boatright, 2000). Sharron Watkins, as a whistle-blower should have written the letter to the Houston Chronicle; Watkins wrote it to Ken Lay, stating Were such a crooked company and warned him of potential whistle-blowers lurking among them, and recommended actions to downplay, or minimize the damage (Time Magazine; Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2008). In the determination and under which conditions an employee should blow the whistle to outside authorities there are two theories, DE Georges? Standard theory and Davis?s Complicity theory. According to DE Georges? Standard Theory, whistle-blowing is permissible when the company will do serious harm, the whistle-blower has reported the threat to her superior but concludes it will not be fixed, and the whistle-blower has exhausted other internal reporting procedures. Furthermore, whistle-blowing is required when there is convincing evidence to an impartial observer, and a good reason to think revealing the threat will prevent the harm at reasonable cost (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2008). According to Davis?s Complicity Theory, whistle-blowing is morally required when the information derives from the individuals work at the organization and not obtained through illegal means, such as spying. That the individual is a voluntary member of the organization and are not being held against their will or coerced. The individual believes there is serious moral wrong-doing, not a harm. The individual believes their work will contribute or in some way be supportive to the moral wrong if they do not go public (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2008). Sharon Watkins, Vice President and a certified public accountant, knew the information was damaging, both harmful and morally wrong, to investors, stockholders, and employees alike. She did informed her supervisor CEO Ken Lay of perceived irregularities in the accounting practices of Fastow?s Special Purpose entities. Therefore, within the context of both theories, she was justified to alert outside authorizes. To whom did Sharron Watkins owe loyalty? Ronald Duska argues that the employee does not have an obligation of loyalty to a company, and that whistle-blowing is permissible, especially when a company is harming society (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2008). Additionally, since Sharron Watkins was a member of a professional organization as a Certified Public Accountant, she was required by their professional code of ethics to report unethical behavior on the part of her fellow professionals in order to regulate their profession, therefore she owed loyalty to the public, her profession and herself. To whom does the board of directors owe their primary responsibility? Can you think of any law or regulations that would help ensure that boards meet their primary responsibilities? In the United States, corporate law dictates that a board of directors must monitor the leadership of the firm to ensure that the corporation is run correctly and effectively in the long-term interest of shareholders. Thus, the board of directors owes their primary responsibility to investors; they owe both the duty of care, or due diligence, and the duty of loyalty, or putting the investors first in their decision-making. Boards of directors are generally recognized as having five key charges. First, and most important, they must select, monitor, evaluate, and when necessary replace the CEO of the firm, with a key underlying duty of engaging in careful, advance succession planning. Second, the board is responsible for ratifying the company?s overarching vision and strategic plan, once it is developed by the CEO and his or her staff. Advising and counseling the CEO and other top managers as needed is a third function of the board, underscoring the importance of a board?s diversity of expertise. The board?s fourth responsibility is to locate and nominate high-quality board members and to evaluate the processes of the board and the performance of both the board and its members. Finally, the board is responsible for ensuring the adequacy of the firm?s internal control systems, a duty that is now reinforced by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 act was designed to protect shareholder value and the general public from corporate wrongdoing. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act dealt with four major issues in corporate governance of public corporations. First, the act created an oversight board to set and enforce auditing standards and discipline public company auditors. Second, the act intended to foster auditor independence. Third, the act increased corporate responsibility, by requiring that CEOs and CFOs certify all periodic reports containing the company?s financial results. Having knowledge of the certification of false statements is subject to criminal liability. Finally, the act enhanced financial disclosure with regard to the off-balance-sheet transactions and obligations with consolidated entities and individuals. These key provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act have significantly strengthened the role of the board of directors and have made managements more accountable. What responsibilities do government regulators owe to business? To the market? To the general public? One of the principal responsibilities of government regulators is to ensure that the laws they enforce are regularly reviewed, and occasionally adjusted, to take account of changing conditions in the world.? Federal Trade Commission Government regulators, such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, are responsible for administering laws written to provide protection for investors. The responsibility government regulators owe to businesses is to ensure they are in compliance with the laws in effect. With regard to the market, the responsibility to ensures markets are fair and honest, and if necessary, enforce the laws through the appropriate sanctions. To the public, regulators owe the responsibility of trust, to provide the confidence to the public that the market and business are conducting operations in a fair, and legal manner and to provide for informed investment analysis and decision making by the public investors, principally by ensuring adequate disclosure of material information Are accounting and law professions or businesses? What is the difference? A business is a legally recognized organization designed to provide goods, services, or both to consumers or other business in exchange for money. Whereas a profession is a vocation that is to supply disinterested counsel and service to others for a direct and definite compensation without expectation of other business gains. In that the primary motive of business is to make a profit, and in doing so may fail, a professional is comparatively safe as he earns fees for his services and there cannot be negative fees. In establishing a business, no special educational or technical qualifications are required, other than providing a need, service, or commodity to the market, a professional is required to acquire a particular degree or qualification prescribed by a particular professional body. Most importantly, in a business upon completion of the transaction there is no assumption or implied contract of any sort, but in a profession their actions, deeds, or services do accompany an impli ed contract, a contract which provides that the service or information provided is truthful, complete, and verifiable. A professionals good reputation is one of his or her most important possessions People need to have confidence in the quality of the complex services provided by professionals. Because of these high expectations, professions have adopted codes of ethics, also known as codes of professional conduct. Codes of professional conduct are of utmost importance to professionals and those who rely on their services. These ethical codes call for their members to maintain a level of self-discipline that goes beyond the requirements of laws and regulations. Professionals know that people who use their services, especially decision makers, expect them to be highly competent, reliable, and objective. Those who work in a professional field must not only be well qualified but must also possess a high degree of professional integrity. Both accountants and attorneys are professions, in that they both must supply disinterested counsel for a set fee, they are hired or contracted to perform a service and in doing that service, are to provided an honest assessment or truthful information. Thus they have a professional responsibility to their clients, to the government, and to the public.

Legalization of Marijuana :: Weed Drugs Argumentative Essays

For many years the use of marijuana for medical purposes has been an issue of controversial discussion. Many claim that marijuana is a drug that has proven itself to be of no medical value in the treatment of terminal illnesses. Those who feel this way, usually ignore the long history of marijuana’s medical uses; a history that goes back thousands of years ago. The drug has aided many people with the coping of terminal diseases. The use of marijuana as a medicinal herb has allowed many with no hope, to enjoy life more fully and lead rather decent life-styles. Marijuana has been erroneously classified as an addictive drug that causes unrepairable psychological side effects. This may be true if marijuana is taken in heavy doses and for recreational purposes. The real fact however, is that this condition could occur with the abuse of any drug, whether it is legalized by the Medical Board or not. If marijuana is abused, it is being used in an abnormal manner, therefore possibly le ading to severe emotional reactions and personality changes. Marijuana should be classified as a non-addictive drug thereby being legalized for medical purposes. The use of marijuana, under medical observation and through proper doses, in fact will not create a drug-addict, but rather it will enhance and increase the chances of a better life style.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All throughout the different epochs of this world’s history, cannibis sativa and cannibis indica, more commonly known as marijuana, has verified to its users its medicinal powers. Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the most active ingredient out of the already known 460 compounds found in cannibis. It is present in large amounts and is extremely psychoactive (Grinspoon and Bakalar). The first known record of marijuana use for medical purposes was in 2737 B.C. by a Chinese emperor by the name of Chen-nung. He recommended it for the treatment of malaria, constipation, rheumatic pains, absent-mindedness, and female disorders. After Chen-nung discoveries, many cultures acquired the emperor’s knowledge and accepted the therapeutic benefits of the medicinal plant. For example, in India, â€Å"Cannabis has been recommended to quicken the mind, lower fevers, induce sleep, cure dysentery, stimulate appetite, improve digestion, relive headaches, and cure v eneral diseases† (Grinspoon and Bakalar). Other places where marijuana began to make a big impact were Persia, Assayria, Greece, Africa, South America, Turkey, and Egypt. Within the realms of Western medicine, cannibis began to demonstrate its abilities from 1840 to 1900.

The Wandering of King Lear’s Mother Essay -- King Lear Essays

The Wandering of King Lear’s Mother After he experiences all kinds of humiliation done by Goneril, and finds his messenger Kent in the stocks, King Lear, in Act 2 Scene 4, conjures up the â€Å"mother† to express his outburst of rage and physical symptom sensations: O! how this mother swells up toward my heart; Hysterica passio! down, thou climbing sorrow! Thy element’s below. Where is this daughter? (II.iv.56-58) Who is this â€Å"mother†? Or what is this â€Å"mother†? As many critics have identified, this â€Å"mother† is another name for the womb, matrix, or uterus. That the â€Å"mother swells up† points to the disease called hysteria. Yet, who is responsible for the rise or wandering of Lear’s â€Å"mother†? Does Lear experience some sort of gender confusion by conjuring up the â€Å"mother†? As Janet Adelman keenly points out, â€Å"The bizarreness of these lines has not always been appreciated; in them Lear quite literally acknowledges the presence of the sulphurous pit within him† (114). But still why do we want to focus on this â€Å"mother† after all? One thing is certain that the (m)othering of the â€Å"mother† is overwhelmingly sophisticated, to the extent that the â€Å"mother† is located in the inside of Lear’s body and her implicated wanderings can be traced throughout the whole play. For our purpose, the â€Å"mother† holds significant clues to our interpretive enterprise and her (m)othering must be handled with extreme care. 1. Introduction In Renaissance England, medical interest in hysteria dates from Edward Jorden’s publication of A Briefe Discourse of a Disease called the Suffocation of the Mother (1603). The title of the book suggests the disease called the â€Å"m... ... to bolster up male identity. Works Cited Adelman, Janet. Suffocating Mothers: Fantasies of Maternal Origin in Shakespeare’s Plays, Hamlet to The Tempest. New York: Routledge, 1992. Camden, Carroll. â€Å"The Suffocation of The Mother.† Modern Language Notes, 63.6 (June., 1948), 390-393. Jorden, Edward. A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London 1603). In Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London. Ed. & introd. Michael MacDonald. London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1991. Shakespeare, William. King Lear. The Arden Shakespeare. Ed. Kenneth Muir. London: Methuen, 1972. Notes 1 As Carroll Camden argues, â€Å"Apparently a male who presented choking as a nervous symptom was, by analogy, said to be suffering from the same disease† (393). Carroll Camden, Modern Language Notes (June 1948).

Death and Afterlife in Ancient Egypt Essay

Throughout the ancient world, it was commonly believed that individuals survived in some form after death. From earliest times, people laid out and drink for dead relatives and performed rituals on their behalf. In many places, people shared communal meals with the dead. These practices were meant to ensure the well-being of the deceased and also to soothe the spirits of the dead and to protect the living from their displeasure (Taylor). The great exception to common ancient beliefs about the afterlife was provided by ancient Egypt. Here life was imagined to follow the cyclic pattern of nature. The sun-god Re and the god Osiris exhibited a pattern of death and resurrection. The transition to the afterlife required certain rituals. The body had to be preserved through mummification, to serve as the basis for the life of the spirit. To reach the realm of the dead, the deceased required special knowledge. From a relatively early period, there was also a judgment, symbolized by the weighing of the heart in a balance. In Egypt we find what are probably the earliest foreshadowings of hell: a place where unrighteous people are subjected to torments and â€Å"the second death (Johnston). † Death The Egyptian approach to the problem of death and the afterlife was the most optimistic solution ever elaborated until their time. The end of life, death, was simply unacceptable. This reflected their optimistic nature, their love of the body and the joys it procured, a contrario to the Hindu solution to the problem of death which reflected a pessimistic nature and the rejection and destruction of the body. Death was intolerable for the Egyptians; it was desirable for the Hindus. Perhaps, above all, the Osirisian revolution represented the highest point of optimism and hope reached in the ancient world the evolution (from the sixth century BC) of Zoroastrian/Hebrew/Christian resurrection/afterlife concepts. Death posed such difficult problems for man that it took over 60,000 years or more, the interim between the Neanderthals and the Egyptians, to come up with radically new ideas and launch a new trajectory of wishful thinking and illusion which would eventually lead to the inventions of Paradise and Hell based on morality and the final judgment and final destiny of all mankind. Egypt, probably largely independently and right from the start of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2868 BC), innovated, made major breakthroughs and may have exercised significant influence on other peoples in the search for the solution to the problem of death. What had somehow occurred in Egypt was a fabulous bringing to fruitition of all of man’s imaginative efforts and abstract reasoning concerning death. The Egyptians sketched out and invented a new type of afterlife aimed at permanently defeating death (Najovits). Mummies of Ancient Egypt In the modern mind no single type of artifact from the ancient world excites more interest that the Egyptian mummy and no other kind of object is considered more typically Egyptian. The very word mummy brings to mind a host of associated ideas – the Egyptian belief in life after death, the seemingly pervasive concern with the notion of death, and the elaborate preparations that were made for it. It is well to state at the outset that religious beliefs made it necessary to preserve the dead, and what it seems a preoccupation with death was actually the outgrowth of a love of life and an attempt to prepare for a continuation in the next world of life as it is known in this. A considerable literature, much of it of a speculative nature, has grown up around the modern interest in the process of mummification. In recent decades the progress of science has done much to dispel earlier misconceptions, but many of these have become firmly fixed and die hard. The process of mummification is still considered to be a ‘lost art’ by many who would rather remain content with an intriguing mystery than be disappointed with a simple explanation. The process was the result of a continuous development based on trial and error and observable results. The details of technique can now be discussed with some confidence and accuracy (Taylor). Through the use of various physical/surgical and chemical processes, the Egyptians devised artificial means to preserve corpses. The process of mummification was introduced very early in Egypt’s dynastic history, in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. Even before then, the Egyptians must have noticed that the hot, dry sand of the desert often desiccated and preserved bodies without any artificial processes. A variety of techniques evolved over many centuries to conserve the bodies of Egypt’s nobility; these included removing the internal organs, soaking the body in natron, and wrapping it tightly in linen. When Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century he documented the mummification methods that were still known, even though the art and science of embalming was not important as it had been earlier (Monet). Afterlife The origins of an afterlife, Paradise and Hell are enveloped in considerable obscurity. At least sixty thousand years ago, the Neanderthals imagined phenomena which did not necessarily exist or certainly did not exist. Perhaps based on their experience of dream life, they seem to have imagined the existence of an afterlife, invented ritual burial for entry into the afterlife, and possibly believed in the existence of the soul. Even if we can have no exact idea of what the afterlife meant for the Neanderthals, the decoration of some dead bodies and the inclusion of foods, goods, weapons and ornaments in their graves, clearly indicate that they believed that life somehow did not end with death that as aspect of life, or a spirit, continued. The seeds of Paradise, the concepts of immorality or consolation, or paradisiacal reward, for the first life, are already at least potentially contained in such a view. However, the Neanderthals and all other peoples at least until Egyptian times seem to have sought solutions to death which were not explicit (Najovits). The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt If you say the word â€Å"pyramid,† most people will think of ancient Egypt. The ancient Egyptians built many famous pyramids. The pyramids were created by the ancient Egyptian civilization, which began about 5,000 years ago. The pyramids were built to serve in the afterlife. These serve as staircases for the dead pharaoh to ascend in the sky, funerary practices involving rituals, spells and amulets and techniques designed to facilitate entry into the afterlife and protection and well being once there. Ancient Egyptians believed that each person had a spirit, or ka, that lived on after the person died. A person’s most important task during their lifetime was to prepare for life after death. Rulers and wealthy people built tombs to be homes for their kas. The earliest tombs were simple structures that resemble large benches. Then, around 2750 B. C. , King Zoser built the first pyramid. It was not a true pyramid. It looked like giant steps, so it became known as the Step Pyramid. King Snefru built the first true pyramid about 150 years later. The Great Pyramid of Giza, the largest of the Egyptian pyramids, was built nearly 4,500 years ago and stands 481 feet (147 m) high. It is located in northern Egypt near the city of Cairo. The Great Pyramid of Giza was built to be the grave for King Khufu. Pyramids provided a place where a king’s body could safely pass into the afterlife. Many great riches were held rooms within the pyramids. The ancient pyramids are engineering marvels. We still don’t know exactly how they were built. We do know that their construction required impressive knowledge of math. We can learn more about the pyramids and the people who built them by using our math skills to study the most famous Egyptian pyramid – the Great Pyramid (Down). From the Old Kingdom to the beginning of the New Kingdom, kings were buried in pyramid tombs, comprising a massive superstructure of stone or mudbrick with adjacent mortuary temple or chapel. In the New Kingdom, the pyramid ceased to be a royal prerogative, and small brick pyramids were incorporated into private tombs (Taylor). Works Cited: Down, David. â€Å"The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt. † Creation Magazine 26. 4 (2004): 44-49 pp. November 13, 2007 . Johnston, Sarah Iles. Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Harvard USA: Harvard University Press, 2004. Monet, Jefferson. â€Å"An Overview of Mummification in Ancient Egypt. † Tour Egypt (2005). November 13, 2007 . Najovits, Simson R. Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land. New York: Algora Publishing, 2004. Taylor, John H. Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. Chicago, USA: University of Chicago Press, 2001.