Mill And Taylor On Equality And Marriage Philosophy Essay

Mill And Taylor On Equality And Marriage Philosophy Essay John Stuart Mills The Subjection of Women is an argument in favor of political equality between the sexes. He claims that no society could hope to approach justice so long as half its people were in subjection and laments that women were deprived of freedom and dignity. In this paper we argue that the perfect equality between the sexes, which Mill calls for in the first paragraph of The Subjection, is vitiated by his views on the position of women in marriage and family. In section I, we show that perfect equality is consonant with his liberal philosophy in On Liberty. In section II, we show that his views on marriage and family make his equality imperfect. If Mills position on perfect equality is correct, and his liberal political philosophy argues that it is, then he drew the wrong consequences for marriage and family. In section III, we show that Harriet Taylor, in The Enfranchisement of Women, drew more egalitarian consequences for family life. I According to Mill happiness is the center of the moral life, the most desirable goal of human conduct. His utilitarian goal, the greatest happiness for the greatest number, cannot be realized apart from the greatest possible moral and intellectual advancement of the human race. Consequently, one of the principal purposes of social and political institutions is to develop human potential to the highest possible stage. Laws and social arrangements should connect the happiness of every individual with the common good. Education and public opinion, which form human character, should be used to establish individual happiness and thereby the good of all. In On Liberty, Mill presents a theory of human nature which stresses individuality and self-development as characteristic traits of a progressive individual, which is what a good society should foster. Individuals ought to derive their views from experience and develop them with reason; they should seek truth, not follow dogma. Only human beings can strive for truth and attain dignity, the ideal and mark of the progressive individual, who epitomizes the dignity of a thinking being, who seeks truth rationally and exercises conscious choice among alternatives, rather then blindly following custom or prejudice. It is such an autonomous individual who expresses individuality, creativity, originality, and self-developmentanything less than truth seeking makes one less than a human person. Machines can reproduce good copies, but this is not true of humans. An individual would not have personal worth if forced to copy a good model, for the notion of conscious choice between alternatives wou ld be lost. This is central to Mill: our ideas and our characters are the products of our own choice. Mills argument for civil and social liberty is firmly based on the notion of utility in the largest sense, grounded on the permanent interests of man as a progressive being. (1) Mill uses man in the generic sense and is concerned throughout with the individual-the person, the human being, the citizen-irrespective of gender. In Chapter 3, he cites Wilhelm von Humbolts view that the end of manà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is the highest and most harmonious development of his powers to a complete and consistent whole. (2) and for this, freedom and variety of situation are necessary. Early in The Subjection Mill makes it clear that the existing relations between the sexes violate principles of freedom and justice. The principle of subordination of one sex to the other is wrong in itself, (3) and should be replaced by a principle of perfect equality. In Happiness, Freedom, and Justice Fred Berger claims that Mill does not advocate strict equality but rather that there is no basis for differential treatment. Instead, rewards and punishments should be apportioned according to desert. There may be areas where some will exercise power over others, but policy requires that competence be the basis for higher status. What this means is that the system of male domination over females violates a basic principle of justice because regard and advantage are based on birth, not merit or personal exertion. (4) Mill denounces the injustice of denying to women the equal moral right to choose their occupations: Would it be consistent with justice to refuse them their fair Share of honor and distinction, or to deny them the equal Moral right of all human beings to choose their own occupations (short of injury to others) according to their own preference, at their own risks? (5) His expanded utilitarianism stresses that the importance of the change toward sexual equality would benefit individuals and society. By implementing sexual equality, there would be a doubling of mental faculties available for the higher service of humanity. He puts the argument in terms of the waste involved in a society that refuses to use one half of the talent it possesses. It is not only freedom but also the opportunity to do something useful that is required for the development of individuals. Mills conception of the nature and needs of the individual human being emerges clearly: If there is anything vitally important to the happiness of human beings, it is that they should relish their habitual pursuitsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Few persons are aware of the great amount of unhappiness producedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦by the feeling of wasted lifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Every restraint on the freedom of conduct of any of their fellow human creaturesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦dries upà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the principal fountain of human happiness, and leaves the species less richà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in all that makes life valuable to the individual human being. (6) It is this idealistic conception of the nature and needs of the individual human being, and its integral relation to happiness, that is the ultimate justification of Mills argument against the unjust and arbitrary situation of the subjection of women. His conception of the individual is thus the ultimate justification of Mills case for sexual equality. This presupposes that women, as well as men, given better education and more opportunities, will flourish and be happy living a life in which they can freely and usefully exercise their talents. II Subjection is being under the power and control of another in a state of obedience and submissiveness. Mill argues that patriarchy, the subjection of women to men, is a theory unsupported by experience because no other principle has ever been tried. Patriarchy is not the result of fair experiment, trial, and refutation. (7) The adoption of a system of inequality was not the result of any deliberation or forethought but arose from the physical power of men over women. Mill contends that womens smaller degree of muscular strength renders them subject to the principle of force: in less advanced societies it is expressed as might makes right, (8) and in civilized cultures as paternalism. Paternalism is subtler since control by men is based on chivalry and generosity. Bribery and intimidation are used instead of brutality to secure obedience; deference and gratitude for protection render women economically and morally dependent on men. The law completes the intimidation with discriminatory statutes. Like other forms of slavery and domination, patriarchy serves the interests of the dominant. Only one could be king and only a few owned slaves, but every man could dominate women. Power is nice, especially over those closely tied to ones interests, and it is also gratifying when one has so little power over larg er social matters. (We may be powerless over the environment, the economy, or nuclear war, but at least we have some power-over women.) Women are in a peculiarly bad position since, unlike slaves and workers, they are more dispersed and isolated, which makes them more difficult to organize. Further, men want more than mere obedience; they want women to be happy in the process. (9) Not only is the superiority of patriarchy unsupported by experience, but the entire course of human progress provides evidence against a principle of inequality. In past societies people were born to roles, positions, and stations. The salient feature of modern societies is the idea that people should be free to employ their faculties and to choose their roles, positions, and stations. It is not that all processes are supposed to be equally good, or all persons to be equally qualified for everything; but that freedom of individual choice is now known to be the only thing which procures the adoption of the best processes, and throws each operation into the hands of those who are best qualified for it. (10) Even if women are, as a group, less strong than men, there are many exceptional and overlapping cases. Any sex-biased social policy that excluded women is an injustice to those who can perform the task. The subordination of women stands out as a glaring injustice in modern society, a breach of what has become a fundamental rule, a relic of an old-world of thought and practice. Since we have tried only the principle of domination, we cannot argue for it from comparative experience. For the same reason, that we have tried only domination, we cannot argue for it by appealing to the nature of women. Since we have not seen women in different social arrangements, we do not know what their nature is. What is now called the nature of women is an eminently artificial thing-the result of forced repression in some direction, unnatural stimulation in others. (11) Mill insists that nobody is in a position to know anything about womens nature because so far we have not seen anything that we could call natural; all we have seen is manifestations of the altogether understandable desire to conform to a stereotype. We do know a great deal more about psychology today but nowhere near enough to answer with certainty the questions of human nature. However, what we do know suggests that the differences that relate to political equality are largely socially conditioned. But suppose we discover the contrary, that women are fitted by nature for subordinate social roles. Could this be used as an argument to support social policies of domination? Such arguments, although surprisingly common, are incoherent. If women are fitted for those roles by nature, restrictive social policies are unnecessary. This is Mills coup de grace. What he argues for is a society without such restrictions, a society of perfect equality where every individual, regardless of sex, is free to choose his or her own role on the basis of individual talents and exertion. III Though Mill was overtly arguing for womens right to self-development and the assertion of their human capacities, their functions in the household remained unrevised in his thought: he advocates freedom of choice but favors the traditional division of labor within the family. It cannot be casually dismissed as an acceptable tension between advocacy of sexual equality in the area of civil rights for women, and simultaneously an implicit acceptance of traditional sex roles. Mill believes that women ought to have a choice of career or marriage but assumes that the majority of women are likely to continue to prefer marriage and that this choice is the equivalent of choosing a career. Unless equality extends to the family, however, Mills perfect equality between the sexes is limited. Although Mill urges that the shackles of custom be lifted from unmarried women and from women whose children have grown up and left home, he complacently relies on such custom to keep married women in their place. (12) The sex-based division of labor within marriage can be safely trusted to social opinion, which rightly directed will support it; women will by and large continue to prefer the one vocation to which there is no competition; and thus continue to perform those tasks which cannot be filled by others, orà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[which] others do not think worthy of acceptance. (13) If it is customary for women to be child-rearers, and if, on the basis of their nature, society assigns this role to women, then it seems that being born female does affect their opportunities and prescribes choices throughout a considerable part of their lives. Their education, for example, will be affected by this customary destiny. Hence, demands for sexual equality become problematic. Mill falls prey to the same argument from nature that he criticizes. Mill argues in favor of equal property rights for married women, rights to property inherited or earned by the woman herself, not rights to equal shares in family income. According to Mill, The rule is simple; whatever would be the husbands or wifes if they were not married, should be under their exclusive control during marriage. (14) Hence, the income of the male earner is his, as much after marriage as before; Mill does not seem to recognize that since womens work in the home is unpaid labor, their freedom of choice is severely restricted and equality becomes a sham. (15) Harriet Taylors Enfranchisement of Women takes a stronger stand: women must earn a living because if they do, their position in society and the family would improve significantly. (16) Mill agrees that married women must be able to support themselves, but he explicitly rejects the idea that they should actually do so because it is liable to lead to the neglect of the household and children. Consequently, Taylors view is more attuned to present day feminism than Mills. She recognizes, as he does not, the importance to women of continuous economic independence, both within the marriage and in case of its disintegration. The Enfranchisement is more radical and speaks more strongly than the Subjection in favor of the married womens need to have a life and career of their own and be more than a mere appendage of a man, attached to him for the purpose of bringing up his children and making his home pleasant. Liberals such as Mill proposed that each individual should be able to rise in society just as far as her or his talents permit, unhindered by restraints of law or custom. What qualities should count as talents and how they should be regarded is to be determined by the support of and demand for those talents within the market economy. In order to guarantee that the most genuinely talented individuals are identified, it is necessary to ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity to develop his or her talents. Women discover self-respect and equality of standing with men only if they earn an income. This seems much more important to a sound relationship between the sexes than mere economic improvement in the family. Mills timid assertion that women should draw self-respect from an ability to earn, of which in fact they make no use, when married is sentimental; Taylor is more aware of the realities of power. If women as wives will largely be confined to the small circle of family, they will find it hard to use their vote to protect their interests. Women will not be able to learn what their interests are without experience outside domestic life. For Mill it is unthinkable that men would want to manage their households and care for their children. Yet the jobs need doing. Since women who bear children and live in the household will have a natural interest in doing the job well, they will do a better job than uninterested hired hands. The solution, according to Mill, is to keep up the public opinion that teaches women that if they marry, they are freely choosing the duties of the family mistress. Mills defense of traditional sex roles within the family amounts to a denial of freedom of opportunity and individual expression of talents to the majority of women who he assumes would always choose to marry. Mill is aware that care of a household is an incessantly preoccupying duty, and that this is a major reason why, comparatively, women lack achievement in the arts and sciences; in fact, he condones the continuance of this barrier for most women. Mill refuses to concede that the tiresome details of domestic life should be shared by both sexes, and his failure to question the social institutions that make such sharing practically impossible is interesting because he recognizes that the principal means by which the world recognizes equals is by success in fields monopolized by men. The only way of dispelling prejudicial beliefs about womens inferiority is proof by examples. If a majority of women are going to remain practically, if not legally barred from such achievements, how wi ll deep-seated prejudices change? The Enfranchisement is both frank and clear about the claim that liberation will lead to greater happiness for women. Even if women in general do not experience frustration or feel that their position is intolerable, this cannot be used to argue for the status quo. Taylor claims, for example, that Asian women do not mind being in purdah and that they find the thought of going about freely shocking. However, this does not mean that they should not be liberated from seclusion, or that they would not appreciate freedom once they had it. Custom hardens people: it prompts them to adhere to situations by deadening that part of their nature that would resist it. How does the objector know that women do not desire equality and freedom? (17) It would be overly simple to suppose that if they do desire it, they would say so. Taylor claims their position is like that of the tenants or labourers who vote against their own political interests to please their landlords or employers; with the unique addition, that submission [for women] is inculcated in them from childhood, as the peculiar grace and attraction of their character. (18) Taylor is not committing the brutal political fallacy of discounting peoples expressed desires in favor of those they would have if their natural selves (according to the privileged ideology) had not been corrupted. (19) She is not suggesting that any restrictions be imposed; she is arguing that restrictions be lifted so that people can pursue and satisfy their desires. It is because of his assumptions and convictions about the family and its traditional role that Mills feminism falls short of advocating true equality and freedom for married women. Although he does reject the legalized inequalities of its patriarchal form, he regards the family itself as essential for humanity and assures his readers that the family has nothing to lose, but much to gain, from the complete political and civil equality of the sexes. Mill attempts to apply the principle of liberalism to women. He eschews patriarchy within the family and views the legal and political subordination of women as anachronisms in the modern age, a gross violations of liberty and justice. However, although Mill is a forward-looking feminist in many ways, he fails to perceive the injustice involved in situations and practices which allow a man to have a career and economic independence, and a home life and children, but which force women to choose between the two. It is Mills failure to questi on the traditional family and its demands on women which limits his liberal feminism. Mill thought equalizing access to the vote, to property, to education, and to public occupations was enough, but he underestimated the importance of economic power, as well as revisions of the roles in the family. Merely providing more equal opportunities for women outside the family would not suffice, without revision of the underlying structures-both private and public-that reinforced and perpetuated the very subjection of women that the essay was denouncing. In the Subjection Mill is genuinely concerned about the harm caused by men to women behind the closed doors of the family home. The government could act, not to restrict the behavior of individuals, but to promote the development of progressive individuality. If one takes liberty seriously, however, state intervention may well be required to secure its conditions. This would be a matter of justice, for it would be wrong to deprive women of the necessary conditions of freedom, of independence, of equal opportunity. Genuine equality of opportunity requires radical change in the way women are raised and educated and in social opinion about their proper place. If women are to have equal freedom of opportunity, they cannot be channeled by education, public opinion, and the economic structure into the belief that they have but one useful vocation in life-dutiful mother and obedient wife. We must instead restructure our social institutions for the free development of originality in women as well as in men. It may seem a bit unfair to criticize Mill. He wrote the Subjection over a hundred years ago and his views and personal behavior were far in advance of his time. He also made it poignantly clear in his Autobiography that his intellectual debt to both his wife and daughter was great. But in the Enfranchisement Taylor shows that she was aware of the shortcomings: with respect to the place of women in marriage and the family Mill held views far less liberal than what follows from his general political position. Feminists have ranged far into biology and psychology, history and anthropology, religion and literature. They have offered a myriad of alternative lifestyles and social systems. But with the exception of his discussion on marriage and the family, no one has articulated the fundamental feminist case as clearly or argued it as well as John Stuart Mill: The object of this Essay is to explain as clearly as I am able, the grounds of an opinion which I have held from the very earliest period when I formed any opinions at all on social or political matters, and which, instead of being weakened or modified, had been constantly growing stronger by the progress of reflection and the experience of life: That the principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes-the legal subordination of one sex to the other-is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality, admitting no power or privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other. (20) [Emphasis added.] Lynn Gordon and David Louzecky University of Wisconsin Colleges NOTES Mill. On Liberty, 70. In On Rawls On Mill On Liberty and so on, Marcus Singer claims that the views presented in On Liberty are so strongly influenced by Harriet Taylor that they are fundamentally different from Mills own views in Utilitarianism. This is an interesting idea that we would like to pursue at another time. In the Subjection, also influenced by Taylor, Mill often appeals to justice in ways that seem to be uncharacteristic of utilitarianism. Fred Berger also discussed this point at some length in Happiness, Freedom, and Justice. Nevertheless, Mill moved some distance from Bentham and, in Chapter V of Utilitarianism, did account for justice in terms of utility. As he says, he is appealing to utility in the largest sense. Still, the question remains whether utilitarianism can justify absolute equality between the sexes in all circumstances-which is what justice would require. Mill, On Liberty, 121. Mill, Subjection, 1. Berger, 197. Mill, Subjection, 77. Mill, Subjection, 186. Mill, Subjection, 8. Mill, Subjection, 10-17; Taylor, 12-13. Mill, Subjection, 26. Mill, Subjection, 32. Mill, Subjection, 38. For Mill, the actual position of married women in his day resembled that of slaves in several ways: the economic and social system gave women little alternative to marriage; once married, the legal personality of women was subsumed in that of their husbands and the abuses of human dignity permitted by custom and law within the marriage were egregious. Mill, Subjection, 172. Mill, Subjection, 86. Goldstein, 319-34. We have referred to Harriet Taylor as the author of Enfranchisement of Women, although it was first published anonymously (see page iii, New Introduction in Mills Subjection, Virago Press). Although there is some uncertainty about who the author is, in the introduction to the Subjection Mill says it is Harriet Taylors work. However, we do not wish here to engage in a complicated debate about the extent of Taylors contribution of Mills work. Taylor, 19. Taylor, 39. Taylor, 40. Mill, Subjection, 1.

Graduation Speech: The Great Ocean of Truth -- Graduation Speech, Comm

How simple life can be, how wonderful it is to take the time to appreciate your surroundings. The opportunities offered me during my four years at County High have been amazing. I have begun to understand all the potential I have to live life. I don't believe it takes a trip abroad to realize all we take for granted here in Hometown, USA. However, amongst the clutter that fills our lives, seldom do we choose to stop and reflect. Today is one day we intentionally set aside for the sentimentality we rarely experience. In only a few months, many of the graduates in front of you will leave home for universities, travel, or jobs. Today is not only your day to acknowledge our accomplishments, but also a time for us to acknowledge all you have given us. Having paid due appreciation to the relationship between each person in this room, whether teacher, friend, or family, I now address the 2012 graduating class. Of all the lessons learned in and out of school, the most important may still elude us. What have we really learned these 17 or 18 years? Perhaps if we consider this question... Graduation Speech: The Great Ocean of Truth -- Graduation Speech, Comm How simple life can be, how wonderful it is to take the time to appreciate your surroundings. The opportunities offered me during my four years at County High have been amazing. I have begun to understand all the potential I have to live life. I don't believe it takes a trip abroad to realize all we take for granted here in Hometown, USA. However, amongst the clutter that fills our lives, seldom do we choose to stop and reflect. Today is one day we intentionally set aside for the sentimentality we rarely experience. In only a few months, many of the graduates in front of you will leave home for universities, travel, or jobs. Today is not only your day to acknowledge our accomplishments, but also a time for us to acknowledge all you have given us. Having paid due appreciation to the relationship between each person in this room, whether teacher, friend, or family, I now address the 2012 graduating class. Of all the lessons learned in and out of school, the most important may still elude us. What have we really learned these 17 or 18 years? Perhaps if we consider this question...

Crime Scene Investigation Case Study Essay

OBTAINING and RECORDING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE When it comes to identifying people that have committed a criminal act, the most positive means is through fingerprints. When we are born, our fingerprints stay with us until we die and our bodies start decomposing. To the human eye our fingerprints look the same, however, further investigation will show that each of us have a unique set of friction ridges that comprise our fingerprints and sets our identity apart from each other. At a crime scene, there are two different types of fingerprints that may be found. Patent prints are visible to the human eye. Latent prints are â€Å"unintentional prints found on items of evidence or at a crime scene† (Unknown, Obtaining and Recording Physical Evidence, n.d.). The ability to visualize prints depends on the physical condition of the person who left the print, the surface on which they left it, and the reflection of the light which is used to help visualize the print. Other circumstances that effect the visibility of latent prints is time and exposure to elements like heat and cold. However, in any case, prints should be attempted to be obtained. When latent prints are smudged they lack the specific ridges to distinguish the print correctly. These types of prints may not be perfect for fingerprint analysis; they may be utilized to provide other trace evidence. Before latent prints can be lifted and processed they need to be discovered. Each print left in different types of surfaces have to be processed in a special way. The most common means is with the use of fingerprint powders or through chemical treatment. Most field kits supply a variety of colors so that the powder can contrast with the background on which they were left. The most widely used colors are black and white  because they are standard colors that contrast on many objects. Fluorescent fingerprint powders help develop prints on multicolored surfaces, and require the source of ultraviolet light. As with most equipment, safety goggles and gloves should be used to avoid undue exposure and harm to the investigator. It is important to have a delicate touch and a small amount of powder to make the latent print visible. Once the print has started to show up, continuing to brush with the direction of the friction ridges will make the fingerprint stand out. At that time, a photograph of the print should be taken and logged prior to lifting the print. If an investigator is in the field without proper powders, passing non-flammable evidence through the smoke of a burning piece of pine will cause soot to deposit on the object. Chemical processing of latent prints happens in the laboratory. Lab technicians are trained in using techniques that are required by the federal law in using many chemical mixtures to aid in processing evidence. Many porous objects will absorb the secretions from fingerprints and will not rub off as easy as they will on nonporous surfaces or objects. In order to get these prints visible, chemicals are applied to react to the secretions to make the print visible. The amount of contact and pressure applied by the fingers will affect prints the most. Once the prints are visualized, and photographs have been taken, prints can be lifted and placed on a print card and transported to the lab for further processing. The most common method to use for lifting prints is rubber lifters and transparent lifting tape. Rubber lifters work the best on curved or uneven surfaces, whereas transparent tape will lift the print in the position in which they were left on flat surfaces. How to Lift Fingerprints The basic police officer’s fingerprint kit should contain a fingerprint brush, black and bi-chromatic powder, lifting tape, and fingerprint cards. There are several types of fingerprint brushes available, the one to use is a personal preference. Fiberglass fingerprint brushes have a better rate of to â€Å"distribute the fingerprint powder evenly† (Spraggs, 2007). Most crime  scenes will utilize the black lifting powder; however, the bi-chromatic powder will be very helpful in processing prints on dark surfaces, because it is a mixture of the black powder with a white or silver powder. When the bi-chromatic powder is used on dark surfaces it will look light and it will show up dark on light surfaces. The best rule for processing latent prints using powder is to use less lifting powder than you think you are going to need. Many latent prints can be ruined by over processing with powder. David suggests â€Å"give the print powder jar a quick shake before opening the lid† then goes on to say â€Å"remove the lid and place the fingerprint brush inside the lid† (Spraggs, 2007). The lid will retain enough powder to start processing the latent print. A precise amount of pressure applied while spinning the brush will produce a good print with good ridge detail. He mentions that too much powder will fill the ridges and over process the print and too little will not produce enough, keeping in mind that too much contact between the brush and the print will damage the print. Once the print has been developed it is time to begin lifting the print. Lifting tape comes in a variety of widths and compositions. General lifting tape is used on flat surfaces and polyethylene tape is great for curved surfaces like door knobs. An important key in applying the tape is to keep it evenly and as smooth as possible. David suggests using a credit card to ensure even and smooth applications. â€Å"Securing the lifting tape about an inch from the edge of the print, then use the edge of the credit card to gently press the fingerprint lifting tape onto the surface† (Spraggs, 2007). This process allows for thorough adhesion of the powder and the tape ensuring that air bubbles are eliminated at the same time and being trapped in the tape. He also utilizes the credit card again when placing the tape to the fingerprint card. How Far Should Prints Be Trusted? Fingerprint analysis is not an exact science and has many potential flaws. One man was imprisoned for six years in Massachusetts for shooting a police officer, only to be released in 2004 when the fingerprint evidence that was  used to convict him was trumped by DNA. For a long time the Department of Justice contended that there was a zero error rate in fingerprint analysis. In a study conducted by FBI’s Latent Fingerprint Section in Quantico, Virginia, concluded that the chance to be mistake a fingerprint for someone else was 1 in 1097. This study was conducted on 50,000 pre-existing images and compared electronically against the whole data set, thus producing 2.5 billion comparisons. However, many advocates against the admissibility of fingerprinting continue to jump on the bandwagon and believe the study does not reflect what happens in life. In life, partial prints from a crime scene can be messy and send an invalid picture of the criminal. In an unpublished study conducted by 92 students that had one year of training where they had to match archive and fake crime scenes. The end result was 2 out of 5861 were incorrect, which produced an error rate of 0.0034% (Coghlan, 2005). Results from proficiency tests published and cited in the Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (Vol. 93, p. 985), report error rates occur at a 0.8% average, and have been known to be as high as 4.4%. Latent Fingerprints In 1914, Dr. Edmond Locard established the first rules on the minimum number of minutiae necessary for a positive identification. According to his study, if twelve or more concurring points are present when the fingerprint is clear the identity is â€Å"beyond debate† (Unknown, Latent Prints, n.d.). If there are eight to twelve concurring points are present the certainty of the identity will be contingent on five additional points. They are the sharpness of the print, the rarity of its type, the presence of the center of the core and the delta in the exploitable part of the print, the presence of pores, and the perfect and obvious identity regarding the width of papillary ridges and valleys, the direction of the lines and the angular value of the bifurcations. If there were less than eight points present, the fingerprints could not provide a valid and accurate identity. Dr. Locard believed that approximately 40 pores in concurrence could establish individuality (Unknown, Laten t Prints, n.d.). Fingerprint Detection: Current Capabilities Crime scene investigators use a variety of tools to help solve a case. Latent fingerprint detection and identification is among one of the greatest forensic techniques used. The value of fingerprint evidence is insurmountable. An investigator needs to know how to detect, enhance and record the print that has been left behind not visible to the human eye. Latent prints left behind at the crime scene are the most common type of fingerprint evidence, but they are also the ones that can cause the most problems, mainly because it is there, but not to the unaided eye. Utilizing optical, physical or chemical treatments to develop the print comes with precise judgment. The investigator or crime scene technician must distinguish between porous, non-porous and semi-porous surfaces; water insoluble or water soluble, etc. Just like anything else, latent fingerprints will start to deteriorate and can lead to the loss of clarity over a specific time because of numerous factors. â€Å"Elements of this process include evaporation of volatile components (e.g. moisture), diffusion (e.g. through the substrate for porous surfaces and across the surface for non-porous surfaces), decomposition (e.g. bacterial action, oxidation, chemical breakdown due to heat and light, etc.)† (Lennard, 2007). The rate of dehydration will depend on certain factors like the temperature, humidity, and exposure to sun, air currents and the surface on which the print was left. Exposure to high humidity can result in diffusion of a water soluble print, causing the print to be lost, and any detection techniques to be ineffective. Using optical detection techniques will aid in finding latent fingerprints. Luminescence will help display a weak friction ridge detail. The best optical detection is achieved by using short-wave ultraviolet (UV) light. This technique is highly effective because the light acts as a contrast between the surface by absorbing the light or reflecting it back showing the presence of print. Will DNA Replace Fingerprints in the 21st Century? The use of fingerprints to help solve crimes was first suggested by Dr. Henry Faulds in 1880. Twelve years later, fingerprints that were left in blood at the scene of a double murder in Argentina were used to convict and identify the killer. However, the first fingerprints accepted in court in the United States didn’t happen until 1911. When we are born, we have distinct patterns on the tips of our fingers that will only change under a biological variation, because once formed in womb, the ridges are permanent and unique to each individual. â€Å"Biological variation is also known as the natural law of variation and is sometimes stated as ‘Nature never repeats’† (Leo, 2005). There are three basic types of fingerprint patterns: loops, whorls, and arches. Each of these patterns are arranged to give individuals unique ridges that make up the person’s characteristics of fingerprints. It is when these ridges are examined under a microscope side by side with a known source that a person can be confirmed or eliminated as a suspect. With new technology, fingerprint evidence can be searched through automated fingerprint information systems (AFIS). Fingerprints are used to establish a person’s identity in the United States and in every other country in the world. Fingerprints are not just used as evidence in a crime (criminal history), but for employment and security clearances. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was discovered in 1911. It was also discovered that this DNA was the carrier of genetic information. However, it wasn’t until 1985 that the structure also established the uniqueness of each person. One year later, the first use of DNA in a criminal case was used to match a suspect to a double murder in England. The first case of DNA evidence admitted in a United States court didn’t happen until 1988. Since then, over thirty-five states have admitted DNA evidence in one form or another while more than twenty-five states have the population frequency data or statistics to be admissible in court (Leo, 2005). DNA evidence is found at crime scenes as the presence of blood, semen, hair, skin, and saliva. In order to make a comparison a DNA profile must be extracted from the evidence and/or a sample taken from a known individual. A DNA profile is accomplished through a process called electrophoresis. After the profile has been extracted, the results are recorded on an autorad and can be compared to other profiles. There are thirteen markers that are used to standardize a national data base called Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) in the United States (Leo, 2005). To date, DNA is still emerging as we continue to move further into the technological future, and can be used for personal identification, employment, security clearance, or to track criminal histories. Every second of the day, millions of fingerprints are being searched via the automated fingerprint systems around the world. Thousands of crimes have been solved because of the fingerprint evidence left behind at the scene of the crime. In 1994, when CODIS began, there have been over 20,000 DNA matches. In Los Angeles County, California, more than 500 latent prints are matched to criminal offender on any given day (Leo, 2005). Both methods of identifying an individual play crucial roles in solving crime. Although fingerprints are still considered the â€Å"golden standard† for forensic evidence in the courtroom (Leo, 2005), DNA is moving forward in being a very important tool to combat and solve crime. However, when it comes down to it, both techniques complement each other and provide vital information to help find criminals. Works Cited Coghlan, A. &. (2005). How Far Should Prints be Trusted? New Scientist, 2517(187), 6-7. Retrieved January 21, 2013, from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.devry.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&an=18376323&site=ehost-live Lennard, C. (2007, December). Fingerprint Detection: Current Capabilities. Australian Journal of Forensic Science, 39(2), 55-59. Retrieved January 21, 2013, from http://www.informaworld.com Leo, W. (2005, September/October). Will DNA Replace Fingerprints in the 21st Century. The Print, 21(5), 1-5. Retrieved January 21, 2013, from http://www.fingerprintidentification.net/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/dnavfingerprints.pdf Spraggs, D. (2007, February 01). How to Lift Fingerprints. Retrieved January 20, 2013, from Police Magazine: www.policemag.com/channel/patrol/articles/2007/02/how-to-lift-fingerprints.as

High School Education Essay

Education has been the proposed priority of the different countries all over the world in an effort to develop the social abilities of the children who will be taking over the country in the future and will be leading it to another way of growth. High school is viewed to be an important time for the students especially as it is a transition between the time of elementary learning and into specialized learning (Armstrong, 1998). Moreover, it is also situated during the development years of the adolescent which may factor to their presence of mind while developing for their future needs. In this regard, it is important to determine the overall direction/objectives of High School in this generation and to determine ways on how these objectives can be implemented and achieved. Today, the main objective of High School also known as secondary school is to provide educational program that enhances full potentials of the students in terns of academics and social aspects. In addition, the educational institution today must be able to establish a more comprehensive and efficient High School or secondary school. It has been said that High school is the time wherein the students themselves are finding their cognitive skills developing and thus are also developing their behaviors appropriately, is also then the time where teachers must focus on tackling these factors equally and comprehensively; as such, the authors acknowledge that high schools must prepare their students for specializing and further studies in different universities. Social competence must also be assessed as the teachers must be able to gauge the abilities of their students and thus from that must then be able to construct their goals for the end of the school year that will include the knowledge that the students have gained, the development of their views, as well as their own goals further than the end of their years in their high school Today, high schools are determined to provide a variety of learning methods to reach all students’ needs. Recognizing that in the past, instruction has often been geared to a hypothetical average student rather than to individual students with different backgrounds, attitudes, needs, interests, and abilities, new ways of learning are being created. These ranges from options for students within the school itself, to community involvement, and even to visiting or living in other countries. In order to meet these objectives innovative projects and programs are designed to reach students who have become frustrated and uninvolved in the work of the conventional high school. Options are intended to make learning more interesting, realistic, and meaningful to students. New ways of approaching the academic disciplines, more personal relationships with students, and imaginative learning activities are being invented example of ingenuity in creating many types of options within one school. Aside from that, High School today is now trying to integrate their educational program with information communication technology. It is noted that innovative Information Technology (IT) applications can provide advantages such as: students experienced greater independence and responsibility for their own work and progress; students are more capable of beating deadlines; and fostered students’ ongoing reflection about their work: either by redrafting and/or reviewing it, and especially by comparing it with assessment criteria with the aim of improving their overall standards. Similarly positive, Goodison (2002) said that even if in terms children’s awareness most students are not aware if ICT made them more productive in any way and that some pupils see the complexity of software applications as barriers to task completion, ICT contributes to the promotion of learning independently.

The Was on Terrorism essays

The Was on Terrorism essays Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, the government have implemented several means in their attempt to safeguard the United States against further terrorism. President George Bush has gone as far as searching for war in order to justify the phrase the war on terrorism. The Governments war has however come dangerously close to home. Means of electronic survey and data storage have become to play an increasingly large role in security measures against terrorism. The problem is that these measures have become so stringent that they impact seriously on the rights of law-abiding citizens, while doing little of concrete value to curb the threat of terrorism. In terms of the constitution and the right of American citizens, I believe that the use of technology in the war on terrorism is becoming increasingly dangerous not for terrorists, but for ordinary citizens. The PATRIOT Act was implemented just after the 9/11 attacks in an attempt by the Government to communicate commitment to safeguarding American citizens. According to Stefanie Olson (2001), the Act provides government with increased electronic surveillance, search and data gathering power. Under the guise of tracking down potential terrorists, the expansion of Internet eavesdropping technology provides the government with full viewing rights into any private life they choose. In this way, immigrants who enter the country and conduct their business in a perfectly legal manner are now targeted for such surveys. Olson (2001) also mentions the technology known as Carnivore. This is technology by means of which Internet communication can be surveyed and stored by the Government. Investigators are now allowed not only to tap phones without the knowledge of citizens, but also to gather private information from Internet users without their knowledge. Under the act, the previous pen register is expanded to include not only ...

What Is Suffering According To Buddha Example

What Is Suffering According To Buddha Example What Is Suffering According To Buddha – Coursework Example The Meaning of Suffering in Buddhism The Meaning of Suffering in Buddhism In Buddhist teachings suffering isthe inevitable truth of life. Even though such an approach seems to be pessimistic, it teaches people to be strong when they face suffering in their lives. Suffering is the most common translation of the word â€Å"dukkha† used in Sanskrit. Basically, â€Å"dukkha† means anything temporary in peoples life. The First Nobel Truth of Buddhism says that â€Å"life is dukkha† that is it translated as life is suffering. According to Harvey (2012), â€Å"dukkha† has a wide range of meanings starting from pain up to dissatisfaction. Many processes in human life are â€Å"dukkha† (painful or problematic); death, birth, aging or dissatisfaction are painful but one cannot skip them. Realistic outlook on life is required in Buddhism to look at all these things philosophically. Such states as happiness and joy are also temporary and when they pass they lea d to mental or physical pain. Overall, there is no word in English that renders full meaning of â€Å"dukkha† (Harvey, 2012).The cause of suffering is the fact that people always seek satisfaction outside themselves and they ignore their self. Buddhism teachings state that people can overcome suffering by diligent practice. There Forth Nobel Truth of Buddhism prescribes people to follow the Eightfold Path to Enlightenment by controlling their views, speech, intention, livelihood, action, mindfulness, concentration and effort (Harvey, 2012). Buddhism requires not only believing in the doctrine, but following the exact rules which lead to the desired state of body and mind. As a result, â€Å"dukkha† is not a predetermination for all. Those who follow the right way of life can eliminate suffering and be happy. ReferencesHarvey, P. (2012). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history and practices. Cambridge University Press.

BALABOUMUTOMBO V SWITZERLAND

BALABOUMUTOMBO V SWITZERLAND Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work produced by our Law Essay Writing Service . You can view samples of our professional work here . BALABOUMUTOMBO V SWITZERLAND CONSISTENT TENSE!!!!!!; the court Facts The Applicant, BalabouMatombo, was a Zairian citizen born in 1961. Heclaimed to have been a member of the Zairian Armed Forces since 1982. In 1988, in response to feelings of discrimination based on his Luba ethnicity, the Applicant secretly joined a political movement Union pour la dà ©mocratieet le progrà ¨s social (UDPS), of which his father was allegedly also a member.The Applicant attended several illegal meetings and demonstrations organized by UDPS. On 20 June 1989, the Applicant was arrested by three members of the Division Spà ©cialePrà ©sidentielle while delivering a letter from his father to a founding member and leader of UDPS named Mr. Etienne Tshisekedi.The Applicant was detained in a military establishment and locked in a one square metre cell, where he was subjected to electric shocks, beaten with a rifle, and his testicles were bruised until he lost consciousness. This torture continued for fou r days. On 24 June 1989, the Applicant was brought before a military tribunal, found guilty of conspiracy against the State and sentenced to 15 years’ imprisonment.He was transferred to a military prison, where he was detained for seven months without receiving medical attention for serious injuries sustained in his interrogation prior to the tribunal hearing. Hewas released on 20 January 1990 under the condition that he presented himself twice a week at the Auditoratmilitaire of Mantete. He sought medical treatment in February 1990 for his eye injury at the General Hospital Mama Yemo. For fear of further injury, and of exposing other members of the UDPSto threats of similar treatment from the Government by virtue of their contact with him, the Applicant left Zaire for Angola, leaving his family, including two children. He stayed in Angola for three months with a friend.The Applicantlater left Angola for Italy, where he arrived on 29 July 1990 using a friend’s passport . On 7 August 1990, the Applicant illegally crossed the border to enter Switzerland.On 8 August 1990, he applied for recognition in Switzerland as a refugee. Hesoon learned that his father had been detained after his departure. The Applicant was heard by the Cantonal Office for Asylum Seekers at Lausanne on 10 October 1990. He presented medical documents from Swiss medical practitioners indicating that the injuries he had corresponded with the alleged torture sustained in June 1989. The Federal Refugee Office (Office fà ©dà ©ral des rà ©fugià ©s) rejected the Applicant’s application for asylum on 31 January 1992,and he was instructed to leave Switzerland.This decision was subsequently appealed a number of times on the ground that the authorities had not sufficiently taken into account essential documents, such as a report of Amnesty International and medical reports. The appeals were rejected. The rejection of the application was based partly on the following: it was unli kely that the Applicant had been imprisoned at a military prison for political reasons. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), which had visited the prison in November 1989, had stated that he apparently did not belong to the category of prisoners which fell under the mandate of ICRC that being prisoners of war and interned civilians, and â€Å"security† or â€Å"political† detainees; and